Մհեր Մկրտչյան

Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa has captivated art lovers, historians, and researchers for centuries. While the audience’s primary focus often settles on her mysterious smile or gaze, the depiction of the figure’s hair also contains deep symbolism, cultural nuances of the era, and Leonardo’s artistic genius.

He was left-handed and wrote using «mirror writing» — Leonardo mostly wrote his notes from right to left, preventing the ink from smudging with his hand. A mirror was often required to read them.

A renowned «super-genius» without a formal education — He did not receive higher academic education and was not fluent in Latin, so all of his discoveries were based purely on personal observation and experimentation.

He was a pioneer of human anatomy — To study the human body, he dissected more than 30 cadavers. His anatomical drawings were years ahead of his time in terms of accuracy.

He was a vegetarian and loved animals — Leonardo abstained from eating meat. It is said that he used to buy caged birds at markets just to set them free.

He designed technology of the future — His notebooks contained sketches of a helicopter, a tank, a submarine, a parachute, and a robotic knight, all of which came to life only centuries later.

He left behind relatively few completed paintings — He was such a perfectionist and moved on to new ideas so quickly that he completed fewer than 20 paintings in his lifetime.

The «Vitruvian Man» — His famous drawing illustrates the ideal proportions of the human body, seamlessly blending art, mathematics, and science.

He was among the first to explain why the sky is blue — Leonardo correctly deduced that the sky appears blue due to the interaction of sunlight with particles in the air (the atmosphere).

The failed experiment of «The Last Supper» mural — He decided against using the traditional wet plaster (fresco) technique and painted on a dry wall instead. As a result, the mural began to deteriorate during his own lifetime.

He was a versatile musician — Leonardo not only played the lyre exceptionally well and sang, but he also designed new musical instruments himself.

English Synonyms for New Words

Environment – Շրջակա միջավայր

Construction – Շինարարություն

Pollution – Աղտոտվածություն

Plastic waste – Պլաստիկ թափոններ

Environmentally friendly – Էկոլոգիապես մաքուր

Experience – Փորձ

Government – Կառավարություն

Public spaces – Հասարակական տարածքներ

Environmental Problems and Solutions from the Text

Problems

Dust, pollution, and waste caused by construction projects. Reduction of space intended for trees and plants. School grounds littered with plastic bottles and packaging.

Solutions

Using reusable bottles and recycling trash. Planting trees and flowers, taking care of plants, and saving water. Keeping school grounds clean. Sharing experience between schools (following the example of the Sebastatsi Educational Complex). Contacting the government and community to ask for the protection of green areas.

Discussion

What environmental problems can schools have?

Schools can face an increase in plastic waste, a lack of green areas and trees, as well as inefficient use of water or electricity.

How can students help?

Students can bring reusable bottles, participate in tree planting events, care for flowers, keep the yard clean, and turn off unnecessary lights and running taps.

How can schools work together?

Schools can organize joint environmental projects, host each other, share experience in developing green spaces, and plant trees together.

What can the government do to protect green areas?

The government can pass regulations forbidding construction in green zones, support the creation of school gardens, and ensure trees and parks are preserved when planning new roads.

Sentences with New Vocabulary

We must keep our school environment clean and green.

There is a new building construction near our school.

Car fumes cause air pollution in our city.

Students gather plastic waste for recycling.

Planting trees is an environmentally friendly activity.

The local government helped us plant new flowers in the park.

In my opinion, the most important idea of the text is that environmental protection at school should not be limited to theoretical knowledge alone. Tree planting, taking care of plants, and recycling trash teach students to take responsibility for their own environment.

A. Present Perfect: Choose the correct answer

Circle the correct option.

1. I have finished my homework already. (have finished / finished / has finished)
2. She has never tried sushi. (has / tried / have / tried)
3. We have lived here since 2021. (have lived / lived / are living)
4. Have you ever met a famous person? (Did / meet / Have / met)
5. He has lost his keys, so he can’t open the door. (has lost / lost / have lost)
6. They have just heard the news. (have / heard / has / hear)
7. My parents have been to Italy three times. (have been / were / has been)
8. Peter hasn’t finished his project yet. (hasn’t finished / didn’t finish / haven’t finished)

B. Present Perfect: Complete the sentences

Use the Present Perfect form of the verbs in brackets.

1. My brother hasn’t finished (not finish) his project yet.
2. I have known (know) Anna for five years.
3. They have already booked (book) the tickets.
4. How long have you studied (study) English?
5. Tom has never been (be) abroad.
6. We haven’t seen (not see) that film yet.
7. Sarah has just received (receive) your message.
8. Have you ever tried (try) Indian food?

C. Present Perfect: Rewrite the sentences

Rewrite each sentence using the word in brackets. Do not change the meaning.

1. I last saw Mark two months ago. (for) I haven’t seen Mark for two months.
2. She started working here in 2022. (since) She has worked here since 2022.
3. This is my first visit to London. (never) I have never visited London before.
4. The train arrived a moment ago. (just) The train has just arrived.
5. He started learning French three years ago. (for) He has learned French for three years.
6. I have never eaten such delicious food before. (ever) This is the most delicious food I have ever eaten.

D. Present Perfect: Find and correct the mistake

Each sentence contains one mistake. Rewrite it correctly.

1. She have already sent the email. She has already sent the email.
2. Did you ever visited this museum?Have you ever visited this museum?
3. I have seen him yesterday. I saw him yesterday.
4. They haven’t finished their work already. They haven’t finished their work yet.
5. How long do you know your best friend? How long have you known your best friend?
6. He has went to the supermarket. He has gone to the supermarket.

E. Direct and Indirect Speech: Report the statements

Rewrite the sentences in reported speech. Make any necessary changes.

1. “I am tired,” Lucy said. Lucy said that she was tired.
2. “We have finished the project,” they said. They said that they had finished the project.
3. “I saw Daniel yesterday,” Mark said. Mark said that he had seen Daniel the previous day.
4. «I will call you tomorrow,» she said to me. She told me that she would call me the next day.
5. “I can help you with this exercise,” Peter said. Peter said that he could help me with that exercise.
6. “I have never been to Rome,” Anna said. Anna said that she had never been to Rome.
7. “We were watching a film at eight o’clock,” they said. They said that they had been watching a film at eight o’clock.
8. “I must finish this work today,” David said. David said that he had to finish that work that day.

F. Direct and Indirect Speech: Report the questions

Rewrite the questions in reported speech. Pay attention to word order and tense changes.

1. “Where do you live?” he asked me. He asked me where I lived.
2. “Have you finished your homework?” Mum asked me. Mum asked me if I had finished my homework.
3. “Why did you leave early?” the teacher asked Tom. The teacher asked Tom why he had left early.
4. “Will you come to the party?” Sara asked us. Sara asked us if we would come to the party.
5. “How long have you known each other?” he asked them. He asked them how long they had known each other.
6. “What are you doing now?” she asked me. She asked me what I was doing then.
7. “Did you enjoy the concert?” Paul asked Helen. Paul asked Helen if she had enjoyed the concert.

G. Direct and Indirect Speech: Requests and commands

Rewrite the sentences using told, asked or another suitable reporting verb.

1. “Please open the window,” she said to me. She asked me to open the window.
2. “Don’t touch the wet paint,” the man said to us. The man told us not to touch the wet paint.
3. “Please don’t be late,” Dad said to me. Dad asked me not to be late.
4. “Bring your books tomorrow,” the teacher said to the students. The teacher told the students to bring their books the next day.
5. “Could you help me with this bag?” the woman said to Jack. The woman asked Jack to help her with that bag.
6. “Don’t forget to lock the door,” Mum said to me. Mum told me not to forget to lock the door.
7. “Please give me your phone number,” he said to her. He asked her to give him her phone number.

H. Reporting verbs: Complete the sentences

Complete each sentence using the correct form of a suitable reporting verb: apologize, ask, offer, advise, promise, suggest.

1. “I’m sorry I broke your phone,” he said to Mia. He apologized for breaking Mia’s phone.
2. “Would you like me to carry your bag?” Leo said to me. Leo offered to carry my bag.
3. “You should get more sleep,” the doctor said to Ben. The doctor advised Ben to get more sleep.
4. “Can you lend me your notes?” Ella said to Mark. Ella asked Mark to lend her his notes.
5. “I didn’t mean to upset you,” she said. She apologized for upsetting me.
6. “I’ll help you with your project,” John said to me. John promised to help me with my project.
7. “Let’s go for a walk,” Anna said. Anna suggested going for a walk.

I. Choose the correct reporting verb

Complete the sentences using the correct form of the verb in brackets.

1. “I’m sorry I shouted at you,” he said. He apologized (apologize) for shouting at me.
2. “Could you tell me the way to the station?” the tourist said to us. The tourist asked (ask) us to tell him the way to the station.
3. “You should see a doctor,” my friend said. My friend advised (advise) me to see a doctor.
4. “I’ll never tell anyone your secret,” she said to me. She promised (promise) never to tell anyone my secret.
5. “Would you like me to help you?” Peter said to Jane. Peter offered (offer) to help Jane.
6. “Why don’t we watch a comedy?” Mark said. Mark suggested (suggest) watching a comedy.

J. Mixed practice: Complete the reported sentences

Use the correct form of the verb in brackets or a suitable reporting structure.

1. “I have already eaten,” Sam said. Sam said that he had already eaten (eat).
2. “Did you see my message?” she asked me. She asked me whether I had seen her message.
3. “Please wait here,” the officer said to us. The officer asked us to wait there.
4. “I’m sorry I’m late,” Alex said. Alex apologized for being late.
5. “Where have you put the keys?” Mum asked me. Mum asked me where I had put the keys.
6. “I’ll help you with your homework,” Nina said to me. Nina promised to help me with my homework.
7. “I haven’t finished the report yet,” David said. David said that he hadn’t finished the report yet.
8. “Don’t make so much noise,” the teacher said to the students. The teacher told the students not to make so much noise.
9. “Have you ever been to Greece?” he asked me. He asked me whether I had ever been to Greece.
10. “I didn’t take your book,” Sarah said. Sarah denied taking my book.

Հին Հռոմը, ապա այն փոքրիկ համայնքից դարձավ հսկա կայսրություն, որը գրավեց Միջերկրական ծովի շրջակայքն ու Եվրոպայի մեծ մասը։ Հռոմն անցավ զարգացման երեք հիմնական փուլով՝ թագավորություն, հանրապետություն և կայսրություն։ Հռոմեացիներն ուժեղ էին իրենց օրենքներով, պետական համակարգով ու ինժեներիայով։ Նրանք կառուցում էին հզոր ճանապարհներ, ջրմուղներ ու ամֆիթատրոններ, օրինակ՝ Կոլոսեումը։ Հետագայում՝ չորրորդ դարում, Հռոմեական կայսրությունում պաշտոնական կրոն դարձավ քրիստոնեությունը, ինչը լուրջ ազդեցություն ունեցավ ամբողջ եվրոպական պատմության վրա։

Հունական քաղաքակրթությունը սկսվել էԲալկանյան թերակղզուց ու Եգեյան ծովի կղզիներից։ Այն ժամանակ Հունաստանը միասնական պետություն չէր, այլ բաժանված էր առանձին քաղաք-պետությունների՝ պոլիսների, որոնցից էին Աթենքն ու Սպարտան։ Աթենքում առաջ եկավ դեմոկրատիան, այսինքն՝ ժողովրդավարությունը, երբ քաղաքացիներն էին որոշում երկրի հարցերը։ Հույները շատ բերին գիտությանը, արվեստին ու փիլիսոփայությանը։ Իսկ երբ Ալեքսանդր Մակեդոնացին արշավեց ու նվաճեց մեծ տարածքներ, սկսվեց հելլենիզմի շրջանը։ Այդ ժամանակ հունական ու արևելյան մշակույթները խառնվեցինար իրար, ու ստեղծվեցին նոր հզոր կենտրոններ։